) I a  n-na  chhut = khi  ? he-how - exit-go 伊 按 仔 出去 ?
 
[ 他 怎麼 出去 的 ?] How did he get out ?3. When the si  e  construction , another focus device , is used , si  should be placed before the io  ng-coverb , and not before the main verb . As in the case of the shih .
 
.
 
.te construction in Mandarin ( see Cheng , 1981 ) what immediately follows the confirmative si  is the focused element .
 
(29 ) b1 .
 
I si  io  ng pe  eo chhut = khi  eo . he-is - with-crawl - nominaliser-exit - go-nominaliser 伊 是 用 爬 的 出去 的 [ 他 是 爬出去 的 ] It is by crawling that he got . In an injunctive sentence , when la  i ‘ let me , let us ’6 precedes a predicate and denotes first person participation in a future action , another la  i can immediately precede the verbal ending khi  ‘ go ’, if it occurs in the sentence . This means la  i ‘ let me , let us ’ is inserted between V1-V2 and V3 instead of between V1 and V2-V3. With such an addition the preverbal la  i can be retained or deleted without any change in meaning . Therefore ( a ) can be restated as ( b ) , and ( c ) can be restated as ( d ) .
 
(30 ) a La  n la  i kia  chhut khe go4-kha  u . we ( inclusive ) - let ’ s-walk - exit-go - outside 咱 來 行出去 外口 [ 咱們 走到 外面 去 吧 ] Let ’ s walk . outside . b La  n ( la  i ) kia  chhut-la  i-khe go4-kha  u . we ( inclusive ) - ( let ’ s ) - walk-exit - let ’ s-go 咱 （ 來 ） 行出來 去 外口 [ 咱們 走到 外面 去 吧 ] Let ’ s walk outside . c Toh-a  la  n la  i ka  poa = chhut - khe . table-we ( inclusive ) - let ’ s-inflictive - move-exit - go 桌仔 咱 來 給 搬出去 [ 咱們 把 桌子 搬到 外面 去 吧 ] Let ’ s move the table out . d Toh-a  la  n ( la  i ) ka  poa = chhut-la  i - khe . table-we - ( let ’ s ) - inflictive-move - exit-let ’ s-go 185 桌仔 咱 （ 來 ） 給 搬出來 去 [ 桌仔 咱們 來 把 它 搬出去 ] Let ’ s move the table out .6. CONCLUSION In concluding this article , we would like to point out features of Taiwanese syntax that are not shared by Mandarin . It is hoped that such an analysis will contribute to better understanding of how Chinese ‘ dialects ’ differ from one another . 1 ) It is possible in Taiwanese for four or even five verbs and coverbs to occur between a main verb and a locative noun denoting destination . The distinction between coverb and verb in such a construction is much more difficult to define in Taiwanese than in Mandarin . 2 ) In Taiwanese , there is an overt distinction between location for an indicative action tr and that for an injunctive action tia  m . In Mandarin the coverb zai is used for both situations . This makes Taiwanese a language that ismore snsitive to time relation than Mandarin .3 ) In Taiwanese the coverb denoting ‘ from ’ and that denoting ‘ toward ’ are usually identical tu  i , u  i , a  n , dpending on pre-verbal vs . post-verbal positioning . This makes Taiwanese relys more on the iconicity principle of word order ( Tai 199 ) than Mandarin . 4 ) In Taiwanese , the directional complement can be singled out for focus .5 ) In Taiwanese , the directional verbal ending ( e.g . , jtp-khi  ‘ enter ’ ) can be modified by a degree expression . 6 ) In Taiwanese the main verb can be nominalised to take the manner coverb , io  ng ‘ with ’.7 ) In Taiwanese direction to come and go is used as speech act markers of the speaker  future participation/non - participation .
 
, l1i khe hia ‘ Let ’ s go !’ is used very similarly to Japanese ikou , ikimasyo , in contrast with khe hia ‘ Go there !’ Jpn ‘ ike , ikinasai ’. This makes Taiwanese more regular than Mandarin in using the verb to come , as an adverb of speech act marking .186 In his Grammar of Spoken Chinese , Chao ( 1968 ) stated that ‘ there is practically one universal Chinese grammar ’ . Given the fact that the Taiwanese grammatical features discussed above counter-indicate that claim , I feel that it is not practical to speak of a universal Chinese grammar in its strict sense .
 
謝言 The author of this paper would like to express his gratitude to Mr . Munetake Hayashi ( 林宗毅 先生 ) for his generous donation to the University of Hawaii Foundation which made the completion of this work possible . NOTES 1. For a description of the variety of Amoy Min spoken in Malaysia , see Bodman ( 1955, 1958 ) . For a general description of Taiwanese syntax , see Cheng ( 1982 ) .
 
2. See Chao ( 1968 ) , Teng ( 1975 ) , Lu ( 1977 ) for descriptions of directional constructions in andarin .3. Taiwanese forms are given in the romanisation that has been most widely used in Taiwan . For its description , see Cheng , R . and Cheng , S .
 
( 1977 ) .
 
Nasalized vowels , however , which are usually indicated by a raised  ” , are indicated by a “ * ” in this paper .4. See Tai ( MS ) .
 
5. See Cheng ( 1974, 1979 ) for a more detailed discussion of the meaning of this construction and modal expressions .6. Lin ( 1975 ) 7 .
 
__UNDEF__ For a detailed discussion of Taiwanese degree expression see Cheng , S .
 
( 1980 ) .
 
8. Cheng ( 1968 ) .
 
187 REFERENCES Bodman , Nicholas C . 1955,1958 .
 
Spoken Amoy Hokkien . Kuala Lumpur , Government Federation of Malaya . Chao , Y . R . 1968 .
 
.
 
A grammar of spoken Chinese . Los Angeles : University . of California Press . Cheng , Robert L . 1968 .
 
Tone sandhi in Taiwanese . Linguistics 41.19 - 41974 .
 
Causative constructions in Taiwanese . Journal of Chinese Linguistics 2.3:279- 324 .
 
and Susie S . Cheng . 1977 . Phonological structure and romanization of Taiwanese Hokkien . Taipei : Student Book Co .1979 . Modality in Taiwanese . Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association XV 2:45 - 93.1981 .
 
Focus devices in Mandarin Chinese . The Proceedings of the Symposium on Chinese Linguistics , 1979 Modern Language Association Annual Convention , San Francisco .1982 A reference grammar of Taiwanese , Vol . I . MS .Cheng , Susie S . 1980 .
 
A study of Taiwanese Adjectives . Taipei : Student . Book Co . Lin , Shuang-fu 1975 .
 
On some aspects of the semantics and tonal . behavior of Taiwanese l1i . JCL 2.3:108 - 128 .
 
Lu , John H-T 1977 Resultative verb compounds vs . directional verb compounds in 188 Mandarin .
 
JCL 5.2:276 - 313 .
 
Tai , James H-I Temporal sequence and Chinese word order .
 
MS .
 
Teng , Shou-hsin 1975 On location and movement in Chinese Gengo Ken Kyu 67:30 - 57 .
 
191 第一 篇 台語 與 華語 裡 的 “有 ” TAIWANESE F AND MANDARIN YOU 0 . INTRODUCTION In this paper , I would like to compare Taiwanese ( Tw ) f and Mandarin ( Md ) you1 , which is one of the most frequently used grammatical words in the two languages .
 
Included in our study is the negative form of f , which is bo  , and that of you , which is meiyou .
 
We recognize that there are many varieties of Mandarin , one of which is Peking Mandarin , and another is what we may call Taiwan Mandarin which has not been well-studied by linguists yet but is spoken very widely and uniformly by the younger generations in Taiwan .
 
__UNDEF__ When an example in the following analysis may be judged to be ungrammatical in most varieties of Mandarin , it will be marked ‘ * ’ .
 
When it may be judged to be grammatical in some varieties , but not so in others , it will be marked ‘ ?
 
?
 
’ .
 
The paper will treat only the productive functions of f / you . The idiomatic usages of f / you such as the following will , therefore , be excluded from discussion .
 
a . youyong ‘ useful ’ chin f-lp - e  ng ‘ very useful ’ 有用 真 有 路用 b . youxian ‘ limited ’ chin f-t2 ‘ very brave ’ 有限 真 有 膽 These are not productive because given such a pattern including f / you , one cannot produce new sentences freely ( e .g , * chin f pit ‘ * very have-pen ’,* chin f - koa  ‘ * very have-liver ’ .
 
) I shall start with the semantic and syntactic features that are common to both f and you in Section 1 , and then discuss the major different functions in Sections 2-6 . In the epilogue , I shall briefly discuss where my contrastive study of f and you might be beneficial to language researchers and language teachers .
 
1921 .
 
SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS COMMON TO TAIWANESE U  AND MANDARIN YOU Some common functions of u  and you may be possession , existence , assertion and approximation .
 
1 .1 . Possessive u - you as a Verb As this type of verb , u/you denotes existence of an object as a possession , belonging , part , or attribute of the subject . 1 ) Ownership a . Wo you san kuaiqian .
 
Go2 f sa - kho - gqn .
 
我 有 三 塊 錢 我 有 三 箍 銀 I have three dollars .
 
b .
 
Ta you henduo shu .
 
I f chin-che  chheh .
 
他 有 真多書伊 有 真濟冊 2 ) Part of a Whole ( Affiliation ) a .
 
Yige ren you liangtiao tui .
 
Chit-e  la  ng f nvg-ki kha .
 
一 個 人 有 兩 條 腿 一 個 人 有 兩 支 腳 A person has two legs . 3 ) Relationship ( Affiliation ) a . Wo you fumu .
 
Go2 f pe  f bi .
 
我 有 父母 我 有 爸 有 母 I have parents .
 
b .
 
Wo meiyou haizi .
 
Go2 bo  gwn-2 .
 
我 沒有 孩子 我 無 囝仔 1934 ) Possession of Object with a Complement ( f / you as a Link Verb in a Pivotal Construction ) a .
 
Wo you pengyou bangmang Go2 f pe  ng-is ta  u-kha - chhis .
 
我 有 朋友 幫忙 我 有 朋友 鬥腳手 ( or bang wo mang ) .
 
或 幫 我 忙 I have a friend to help me .
 
b .
 
__UNDEF__ Wo you yijian shiqing yao zuo .
 
Go2 f chtt-kia  ta  i-ch ì a  i cho .
 
我 有 一 件 事情 要 做 我 有 一 件 代誌 要 做 I have some thing to do .5 ) Modal Nominal as Attribute of the Subject a .
 
Ta you sheng daxue de yisi .
 
I f beh seng-h5k e  e-su  .
 
他 有 升 大學 的 意思 伊 有 欲 升 大學 的 意思 He has the intention to go to college .
 
b .
 
Ta you bei luqu de keneng .
 
I f  hp  la  ng l [ k-chhs 7 khi-l7ng 他 有 被 錄取 的 可能 伊有 hp  人 錄取 7 可能 He has the possibility of being accepted .
 
c .
 
Ta you yisi qu .
 
I f ì- su  beh kh ì .
 
他 有意思 去 伊 有意思 beh 去 He has the intention to go .
 
d .
 
Ni you yiwu huixin .
 
L í f  gr-bu  a  i ho  e phoe .
 
你 有 義務 回信 你 有 義務 愛 回批 You have the obligation to reply .
 
1.2 .
 
Existential f/you as a Verb 1 ) Existence in a Local or Temporal Setting a .
 
Jintian you wu .
 
Kin-2- jtt f bu  .
 
今天 有 霧 今仔日 有 霧 There is fog today .
 
194 b .
 
Tianxia meiyou zheizhong shi .
 
Thi - kha-e  bo  chit-ho  .
 
ta  i-ch ì .
 
天下 沒 這 種 事 天腳 下 無 這 號 代誌 There is no such thing in this world .
 
c .
 
__UNDEF__ Jintian wanshang you keren .
 
Eng-a  m f la  ng-kheh .
 
今天 晚上 有 客人 Eng 暗有 人客 There will be guests coming tonight .2 ) Existence Without Specification of a Setting a . Haoren ye you , huairen ye you . Hi-la  ng ma  f  , ph2i - la  ng ma  f . 好人 也 有 ， 壞人 也 有 好人 嘛 有 ， 歹人 嘛 有 There are good persons as well as bad ones . b . Zheizhong shi chang you .
 
Chit-chiing ta  i-ch ì sio  ng-sio  ng f .
 
這 種 是 常 有 這 種 代誌 常常 有 This is a common matter .
 
c .
 
Zheizhong shi shi chang you .
 
Chit-chiing ta  i-ch ì sr put-s î f 7 .
 
這 種 事 是 常 有 的 這 種 事 是 不時 有 7 This is a common matter .3 ) “ Some ”, the Existential Quantifier2 a . You de ( dongxi ) hen nanchi . F e  mth-kia  chin ph2i - chi5 h .
 
有的 （ 東西 ） 很 難吃 有 7 物件 真 歹吃 Some things are hard to eat .
 
b .
 
youxie xuesheng F chtt-ko2 h5 k-seng .
 
有 些 學生 有 一 寡 學生 some students c . you ( de ) shihou F ( e  ) s î- chu  n .
 
有 （ 的 ） 時候 有 （ 7 ） 時陣 sometimes 4 ) Omni-existential 195 a . Qian youde shi .
 
Ch î mo2-mo2 sr .
 
錢 有的 是 錢滿滿 是 There is plenty of money . b . Youde shi qian . Ch î khah che  ma  f 有的 是 錢錢 較 濟 ， 嘛 有 There is ( plenty of ) money . c . Yao duoshao jiu you duoshao . Beh g 4 che  , chiu  f g 4 che  .
 
要 多少 就 有 多少 Beh 偌濟 ， 就 有 偌濟 There is as much as you would want .5 ) Coming Into and Going Out of Existence a .
 
You dian le .
 
F tia  n ah .
 
有 電 了 有 電啊 There is electricity now .
 
b .
 
Meiyou qian le .
 
Bo  ch î ah .
 
沒有 錢 了無 錢 啊 There is no more money now .
 
6 ) Existence of an Object with Event a .
 
Zuotian you ren lai kan ni .
 
Cha-hng f la  ng la  i kh 3 l í .
 
昨天 有 人 來 看 你 昨昏 有 人 來 看 你 Yesterday , there was someone who came to see you .
 
b .
 
Meiyou ren zai litou shui .
 
Bo  la  ng tr la  i-t8 teh khu  n .
 
沒 人 在 裡頭 睡 無 人 tr 內底 teh 睏 No one is sleeping inside . c . Litou meiyou ren shui . Bo  la  ng tr la  i-t8 khu  n .
 
裡頭 沒有 人 睡 無 人 tr 內底 睏 There is no one sleeping inside .
 
7 ) Existence as Result of Action 196 a .
 
Xuexiao houmian ( you ) zhong H5 k-ha  u a  u-bi  n f che  ng chin zhe hen duo shu .
 
che  chhiu  .
 
學校 後面 （ 有 ） 種 著 很多 樹 學校 後面 有 種 真濟樹 In the back of the school are planted many trees .
 
b .
 
You henduo shu zhongzai F chin-che  chhiu -2 che  ng xuexiao houmian .
 
tr h5 k-ha  u a  u-bi  n .
 
有 真 多 樹種 在 學校 後面 有 真濟 樹仔種 tr 學校 後面 ( same as a .
 
) c . Zhuoshang ( you ) fangzhe Toh-a - t8ng f khcg chtt-psn chheh . yiben shu .
 
桌 上 （ 有 ） 放 著 一 本 書桌 頂有 khcg 一 本 冊 On the table is placed a book . d . Jiali ( you ) zhunbeizhe Chhu - lin u  chsn - pr pia  n jijiuyao .
 
i [ h-a2. 家 裡 （ 有 ） 準備 著 急救 藥厝 裡 有 準備 便 藥仔 In the house prepared for use is first aid medicine . 8 ) Existence Under Focus a .
 
Ta yao maide ( dongxi ) you bi , I beh b8 e  mth-kia  f pit , zhi , gen yanyao .
 
cho2 , kap b5 k-i [ h .
 
他 要